Employment Dispute Resolution in Singapore

1. Introduction a. Objectives The objective of the report is to provide a better understanding of the roles of the different courts in settling employment disputes. At the end of the report, reader would be able to find alternatives in settling employment disputes too. b. Methods of Research In this report, there will be real life case studies settled by different courts for settling disputes. These cases will help in illustrating the criteria for using the different courts. This report will also include internet research. 2. Causes of DisputesDisputes are caused when both parties, namely the employer and employee, cannot come into an agreement over monetary issues such as wages, benefits and overtime pay. Other circumstance will be a violation of health safety standards or law that can be common law or related to employment. Court cases will arise when these disputes are not resolved by conciliation or mediation. 3. Acts Relating to Employment There are two main acts that concern th e procedures of settling disputes. They are the Employment Act (EA) and Industrial Relations Act (IRA). c. Employment ActFor employees covered by the Employment Act, employment disputes will only be referred to the Labour Court for adjudication if they are unable to be resolved amicably through conciliation. Conciliation is a process which involves negotiations between the parties, then coming up with a mutually agreed decision that is fair to the parties involved. However, certain conditions must be satisfied, that the claim must be on matters arising not earlier than one year from the date of lodging the claim, and if the employee concerned had already left employment, the claim must be lodged within six months from the date of leaving employment.For managers and executives who are not covered by the Employment Act, the Ministry will consider providing mediation service to help resolve employment disputes on breach of contract or retrenchment. Mediation, a non-adversarial process, involves a mediator who will facilitate the entire process by helping the parties involved to first identify issues, negotiate, then find a practical solution and settlement that all parties involved are mutually agreeable to and able to accept. The mediation process is voluntary and considered on a case-by-case basis.There are certain requirements that will apply, which includes that the managers and executives are earning $4500 and below, the claim is in respect of a matter which occurred within the period of one year before the date that the issue is reported, if the claim is for items related to their termination (e. g. notice, the issue must be lodged within six months from the date on which the employee has left employment), and when viable alternatives such as private amicable settlement with employer had been exhausted.However, if either party fails to respond to mediation or if no amicable settlement could be reached after mediation, the matter will then be pursued in the civil court. d. Industrial Relations Act The Industrial Relations Act is passed in 1960 to provide a mean to settle employment disputes through collective bargaining which involves the union, conciliation and if unresolved, through arbitration held by the Industrial Arbitration court. This act aims to protect employees who are members of the union, allowing them to enjoy benefits covered under.Examples of union include the Food, Drinks and Allied Workers Union and Singapore Airlines Staff Union. This act limits the representation of employees who are in managerial and executive positions in certain areas. As defined in Section 30(1) of Industrial Relations Act, an executive employee is an employee who is employed in a managerial or executive position. They are not allowed to have representatives from the union to negotiate for retrenchment benefits upon retrenchment or resolving any dispute in the contract of employment.As this act is a bridge to the tripartite relationship in Singa pore, namely the government, employer and employee, there are certain procedures to follow in accordance to filing a case against the employer in a unionized organization. Preceding the filing, the employee would have to try to resolve the dispute with his immediate supervisor. Failing that, he or she can choose to bring the matter up to a member of the branch committee of the Union who would make a representation of the employee in resolving the dispute.In more serious cases, it can be brought up to the Human Resource Department by the General Secretary of Union and may even request a union management meeting with the management of the company. After all means, both parties will then refer the case to Ministry of Manpower for conciliation which is an invitation to negotiate under the Act. If an agreement is not reached by both parties, they can seek mediation by the Industrial Arbitration Court. 4. Different Courts The employees covered under the different acts will bring up their unresolved disputes to different courts. . Labour Court The Labour Court, deals with issues between employers and employees when they cannot be resolved through mediation or reconciliation at the MOM level. It is empowered by law to inquire into and arbitrate disputes between employees and employers. If mediation between the parties does not yield any agreement, for example, company not paying their employee salary or wrongful dismissal. The decisions or orders by the Labour Court are enforceable. It is also more viable for the employee to go through the Labour Court to settle employment disputes.However, the employees must not be earning more than S$2500 per month and are covered under the Employment Act. In the case of Vertex Global Holdings Pte Ltd, they owed an employee in arrears for about 2. 5 months. They gave the reason of having financial difficulties and were not able to pay the employee. The case was brought up to the Labour Court but they did not accept this explanation and the company was ordered to pay the employee amounting to $2820. In another case whereby a cook employed by VP Food Pte Ltd, he was terminated after 3 days.However, the employer was to pay him a sum of $235. 38 for work done but was underpaid. The reason that the employer gave was the distress caused by the cook’s harassment and there was no notice period specified. The explanation was rejected. The court held that Employment Act prevails and notice pay was payable In such cases, Labour Court comes into good use when dealing with unfair treatment from the company. But in recent years, the number of cases being brought up to Labour Court has decreased from 2009 to 2010.This shows that mediation or reconciliation has contributed to a huge part of the decrease in number of cases and they would be a better solution to problems than going to court. f. Industrial Arbitration Court Employment disputes, concerning union members, are not resolve under the conciliation of MOM are re ferred to the Singapore Industrial Arbitration Court (IAC) for further remediation. The IAC resolve disputes between employers and employees by offering the best possible solutions that are not only fair and beneficial to both parties but also in the interest of the community and country’s economic situation.The decision made by the Justice of IAC is concluding hence it cannot be disputed or appealed against. Voluntary and compulsory arbitration are the two ways that employers, unions or the government can refer an employment disputes to the IAC. Through the voluntary arbitration, employers and unions can refer their cases to the IAC through a joint or ex-parte application however this is only applicable when mediation at the MOM level is deem inconclusive. Under compulsory arbitration, a dispute is referred to the IAC when it is directed by the MOM or the President of Singapore.With increasing efforts from tripartite co-operation, Singapore has seen a great decrease in the n umber of cases being handled at IAC. The number of employment dispute cases averaged 10 per year and this indicate that that majority of the cases are being resolved at MOM and union level. This is essential as it helps to reduce unnecessary loss of work man hours and provide foreign investor’s confidence to invest in Singapore which in turn boosts the Singapore economy. Over the years, IAC has proven to be an effective way in solving disputes between employees and employers however there are cases when one party might feel otherwise.In the case of the dispute between Singapore Refinery Company and the representing union, the general secretary of SRCEU mentioned that â€Å"the union is disappointed with the ruling as a whole. † The case was brought up to the IAC for settlement as the union demanded salary and service increment for SRC employees. The president of IAC concluded that SRC will increase the service increment to 5 per cent plus $15 and 3 per cent salary incr ement. The union felt that the increment was too low and there was no effective communication between them and the company.This case show that whiles the IAC may provide the best feasible solution however it does not mean that it is the best fit for all the parties involved in the dispute. g. Civil Court The role of civil courts in resolving employment disputes is at minimal. Disputes raised by Professionals, Manager and Executives, also known as the PMEs, earning up to S$4,500, are solved in civil court. However, the Ministry of Manpower in Singapore is looking into resolving their salary disputes in Labour Court in the near future, limiting it to S$20,000.This allows PMEs to seek a lower cost alternative in resolving their disputes. For breaches in employment contract, it will still be handled by civil courts under law of contract. 5. Comparison h. Differences Between The 3 Courts | Civil Court| Labour Court| Industrial Arbitration Court| What they settle? | Employment disputes on breach of contract or retrenchment that cannot be resolved through mediation| Employment disputes that cannot be settled through conciliation| Trade disputes that cannot resolve through conciliation| How they settle? The role of Civil Court in resolving disputes is at minimal. Civil Court handles breaches in employment contract under law of contract. | The court has the authority to analyse and settle disputes(for example, unfair treatment from the company)| Resolve employment dispute through arbitration. The decision made by the Justice of IAC cannot be disputed or appealed against. | Criteria| PMEs(Professionals, Manager and Executives) earning up to $4,500| No legal representation is allowed in Labour Court.Employees not earning more than $2,500 per month and are covered under Employment Act| An executive employee who are employed in a managerial or executive position are not allowed to have representatives from the union to negotiate for them(retrenchment or disputes in the con tract of employment)| Who can go? | Managers and executives that are not covered under Employment Act| Employers and Employees under Employment Act| Employers and trade unions| In the past, Singapore employment law has been favorable to employers.However, the trend in recent years shows that enhancement of employee welfare and safety became more important. i. Singapore versus United States of America Both countries show various similarities of the roles of court in settling employment disputes. In United States of America (USA), employees are allowed to sue for dismissal due to discrimination of gender, religion, origin and many more. Employees are generally protected against discrimination under U. S Equal Opportunity Commission (EEOC).In Singapore, employers are encouraged to practice fair employment promoted by Tripartite Alliance for Fair Employment Practices (TAFEP). In both countries, employees are allowed to bring their employers to court in any event that there are employmen t disputes and unresolved by conciliation and arbitration. However, there are differences too. In United States of America, the government is more in favor of the employees whereas in Singapore, the government is more in favor of the employers.Also, in any disputes, the United States of America allows employees to hire a lawyer or an attorney to represent them in court. In Singapore, employees covered under different acts are represented by different people such as the union leader or even unrepresented in front of the labour court. The different courts are designed to different cases involving money or other disputes while all disputes in United States are brought to only one court. 6. Conclusion Through intensive research and findings, this report covers the key points on how the different courts resolve employment disputes.Although MOM have proven to be an effective medium in mediating disputes between employers and employees, there is still a need for the presence of court to re solve cases that are more complex. Case studies are being brought up in the report to further illustrate how disputes are being resolved at different levels. In referring to the SRC case, it clearly highlight that although the IAC has provided the best possible remedy however it does not satisfy all parties who are involved in the case.This means that better procedures can be considered to better understand the problems underlying between employees and employers. Through our recommendations, it will provide possible solution to further enhance the system that is already in place. The recommendation will not only look at the current problems but it will also propose how corporations can create a harmonious working relationship among employers and employees. 7. Recommendations

Reflections on Teaching and research on graduates

This study summarises the literature I have read and reviewed on the instruction and research link and the closely related subject of heightening research-based alumnuss attributes. I foremost review the literature on teaching-research links, inquiry if these links are built-in in the course of study and discourse current barriers. I will discourse current policies and patterns that aim to hold a perpendicular and horizontal research and learning subject throughout programmes. I will so concentrate specifically in Information and Mathematical Sciences and reflect on personal experiences of learning and research linkage at the single and institutional degree.Introduction to Teaching-Research NexusThe construct of the instruction and research link as a nucleus component of Higher Education Institutions ( HEI ‘s ) was clearly set out in the Magna Carta Universitatum ( the â€Å" constitutional chart † of European Universities ) in 1988. The drift for the Magna Carta Univers itarium was to increase consciousness of the functions that universities would necessitate to follow in order to get by with a changing and progressively international society. A cardinal rule of the Carta was that: â€Å" Teaching and research in universities must be inseparable if their tuition is non to dawdle behind altering demands, the demands of society, and progresss in scientific cognition. † ( Marga Carta 1998 ) . This is supported by positions that what truly distinguishes Higher Education is its focal point on back uping pupils ‘ apprehension of how research is continually reshaping our cognition of the universe and a distinguishable set of alumnus properties. Ron Barnett ( 2000 ) has argued that the universe we live in is ‘supercomplex ‘ where non merely cognition is unsure, but besides that how we seek to understand such complexness – for illustration, dirt as a Carbon sink – is itself contested by different research attacks and t he copiousness of information. He argues that the function of Higher Education is to assist pupils and the wider society header with that complexness, and that the key to this lies in instructors following ‘teaching attacks that are likely to further pupil experiences that mirror lectors ‘ experiences as research workers ‘ ( Barnett 2000 ) . In other words pupils should larn and be assessed in ways that come every bit near as possible to the experience of academic staff transporting out their research. Other more matter-of-fact benefits of coherence between learning and research include enthusing the pupils about the exhilaration and challenges of geographic expedition. Understanding the research procedure itself is every bit critical as groking the item of the subject ‘s current cutting-edge research which may be excessively dynamic to maintain up with, or excessively cumulative in nature ( Land et al 2008 ) . Healey ( 2005 ) province that â€Å" piquant pu pils in research and enquiry is one of the most effectual ways to assist pupils think like a scientist or historiographer, which is one of the most of import alumnus properties for most-discipline based degree programmes † . If the construct of a ‘knowledge economic system ‘ has any cogency so undergraduate instruction demands to include some apprehension of, and ability to make or utilize, research. Naming this undergraduate research and doing explicit to pupils the fact that this may good help their employability, can both assist them to appreciate better the function of research in the university and back up their hereafter employability. Students are besides likely to derive most benefit in footings of deepness of acquisition and understanding when they are actively involved with research of all sorts. Learning activities linked to research develop portable accomplishments including the opinion to separate dependable from undependable information, the forbearan ce to follow longer statements, man-made ability to acknowledge forms in unfamiliar contexts and the flexibleness to work across disciplinary and cultural boundaries to bring forth advanced solutions. The work of Barnett ( 2000 ) , Healey ( 2005 ) and the doctrine of the Scots QAA ( Land et al 2008 ) purport the impression that research and instruction should be inextricably linked and this nexus is valuable in footings of the connexion that research led instruction has to knowledge and understanding at advanced degrees of acquisition. The inquiry arises as to how links between research schemes and activities can be embedded in the course of study to outdo support the pupil larning experience in ways that can heighten learner accomplishment of research type attributes.Are T & A ; R linkages embedded in the course of study?At a high degree most people accept that incorporating instruction and research in HEI is good to scholars as it may enable pupils to get by better with rapid soci o-cultural, political, economic and technological alteration in the hereafter. In the UK, recent policy-orientated research by Gibbs ( 2001 ) and JM Consulting ( 2000 ) indicates a failure of institutional schemes to associate instruction and research efficaciously, or at least to make this in a purposeful and expressed mode. There are several proposed grounds one being that in the UK separate support steams drive instruction and research and these are basically driving them apart. Two landmark surveies of the US higher instruction system ( Boyer 1990 ) argued that the institutional focal point on ‘discovery research ‘ , i.e. research that is RAE'able in the UK, has devalued the system-wide demand for attending to quality instruction and in consequence decoupled learning from research. The institutional restraints imposed by policies together with other political drivers such as the publication of The hereafter of Higher Education published in 2003 in which it was highli ghted that research in the UK should be concentrated at peculiar universities to advance international excellence resulted in a rift between learning and research activities. The UK Government has since changed its position and now acknowledges the alumnus attributes that pupil engagement in research-based instruction can develop, and to indicate to the importance of the course of study in gaining those properties. Although it is acknowledged that learning and research linkages should be portion of university instruction there is current argument sing whether learning and research, are in fact, inextricably linked in Higher instruction learning. Hattie and Marsh ( 1996 ) researched the assorted theoretical accounts of the relationship between research and instruction and concluded: â€Å" Based on this reappraisal we concluded that the common belief that learning and research were inextricably intertwined is an digesting myth. At best that learning and research are really slackly coupled † . Gibbs ( 2002 ) states that â€Å" most people, including myself, believe that research can profit instruction † . However, â€Å" in pattern, it is pretty clear that, on norm, it does non † . This he suggests is because institutional schemes for research and learning have tended to handle research and instruction as wholly separate affairs. This is exemplified by some establishments off ering learning lone assignments and this clearly undermines any claim that research is a requirement for high-ranking instruction ( J M Consulting and Associates, 2000 ) . The current challenge is for establishments to develop policies and pattern that embed teaching-research linkages into the course of study. One manner to develop teaching-research linkages is via alumnus properties, so some linkages, e.g. to critical thought, are about a alumnus property, which is one subset of employability issues. Enhancing research-graduate properties can be considered one of the ways of development of research-teaching linkages. During the period 2006-2008 the Scottish Sector considered the subject of heightening alumnus properties through research-teaching linkages ( Land et al 2008 ) and reported on ways in which instruction and research linkages can be embedded in the course of study for a figure of subjects, illustrated by a scope of instance surveies which show cased some of the technique s and learning activities that promoted instruction and research linkages. The work undertaken by the QAA HE ( Land et al 2008 ) in measuring the Teaching-Research linkages across Scots Universities highlighted a figure of issues including: small grounds of a structured attack to research-teaching linkages to develop alumnus properties in pattern based course of study ; challenges surround the delivering of research-teaching linkages to develop alumnus properties in practice-based course of study ; was small grounds of pupil engagement in, or cognition of, the procedure of associating research and instruction or, even more significantly, its intent ; a inclination for the research community non to prosecute in acquisition and instruction developments ; honor constructions do non needfully promote advanced work in research-teaching linkages and negative consequence of the Research Assessment Exercise ( RAE ) on advancing research-teaching linkages. I will now depict some of the estab lishment constabularies that are in topographic point to implant teaching-research linkages and get the better of some of the hurdlings identified by QAA HE.Interventions – Institutional Role in research-teaching linkagesThe nexus between staff research and pupil acquisition is non automatic, and has to be built consistently into the course of study, departmental, institutional and national planning. The linkage might one time hold been readily assumed or delivered with little categories, selective pupil entry, and staff with clip to learn and research efficaciously. Paul Ramsden ( 2001 ) stated: â€Å" the chief hope for gaining a genuinely pupil centred undergraduate instruction lies in re-engineering the teaching-research nexus.Re-engineer ‘ suggests that even if one time the linkage did be, it now needs important ‘re-inventing ‘ to guarantee it is in topographic point. There is much that persons, class squads, sections, establishments and national syste ms can make to hammer these links ( Jenkins et al. , 2003 ) . The cardinal focal point now is for persons, sections and establishments to come on effectual research-teaching linkages to back up the development of research type alumnus attributes to foster heighten their subjects pattern and policies. Briefly the institutional attacks for implanting research-teaching linkages into current pattern include: Procedural and structural attacks such as class blessing processs that are in topographic point to supervise teaching-research links, Contractual/reward mechanisms that include wagess constructions and inducements to promote staff to develop learning research links, New policies and schemes to drive and develop embedding of research-teaching linkages, Enhancing Graduate Properties by development of alumnus properties distinctive to HEI and the grade to which there exist possible synergisms with instruction and research linkages and Disciplinary Cultures the extent to which civilizations within the HEI might further or suppress the development of effectual research-teaching linkages. I will now depict, although it is non inclusive, how University of Abertay has gone about implanting resaerch-teaching linkages.New policies and schemesNew policies and schemes developed by University of Abertay Dundee include the White Space undertaking designed to rise consciousness of instruction, research and acquisition and aimed to reconstruct the whole University around some cardinal accomplishments: interdisciplinarity in reasearch and complex systems. Originating from White Space came a new instruction and acquisition program, a installation that promoted insouciant and non insouciant interactions amongst staff and pupils, squad working and exposure to interdisciplinary research ( Whitespace studentships ) . The Whitespace studentships are designed to guarantee existent originative thought across a scope of subjects.Enhancing Graduate propertiesThe University ‘s work on alumnus properties has besides served to ordain the linkages between learning, research and larning schemes to breed alumnus properties. University of Abertay Dundee are working to polish a list of qualities that should be common to all alumnuss of the establishment, see Appendix A. The list contends that Abertay alumnuss should be four things: confident minds, determined Godheads, flexible confederates and ambitious inquirers. The terminal consequence should be that its pupils have the accomplishments to â€Å" dispute complexness † in whatever they go on to make when they graduate.Get the better ofing Disciplinary civilizationsIn footings of disciplinary civilizations for some subjects particularly in the countries of difficult scientific disciplines it is hard to further learning research linkages before the 4th twelvemonth this is due to the cumulative and hierarchal building of cognition. Students need to hold the necessary background on constructs and rules before they can prosecute in research-based activities and are able to understand the consequences of research. This makes it hard to integrate research findings or one ‘s ain research in undergraduate classs, in peculiar in the first two old ages ‘ ( Fasli, 2007 ) . Undertakings within the University of Abertay such as Project X, a first twelvemonth faculty, seeks to get the better of this. In add-on to institutional drivers persons besides have a important consequence on teaching-research linkages which I will depict below.Interventions – Individual Role in Teaching Research linkages.Below I will show and reflect upon several personal experiences in which I have tried to utilize research as a driver for learning with the purpose of heightening the pupil experience and to the deepness and comprehensiveness of pupil larning. In all my instruction I seek to further a research-mindedness in the pupils. I believe that pupils at any phase of their programme can be exposed to teaching-research linkages nevertheless the nature of the interaction must be appropriate for that degree and I have used the model developed based on Healey ( 2005b ) which has been exploited by Levy ( 2007 ) to steer this interaction ( Fig 1 ) .Figure 1: Curriculum design and the research-teaching link from Healey ( 2005b, p.70 ) .We can categorize the instruction activities used to heighten the teaching-research link based on the nature of the research procedure and the interaction with pupils. By and large there should be a move from research-led to research-based as pupils progress from degree 7 to level 11 of programme. The research-tutored manner reflects the authoritative tutorial construction where the pupils are taken through recent publications and invited to discuss/debate their apprehension of the activity. Research-led follows current research where pupils are exposed to concepts/developments in the field of survey. Research based corresponds to enquiry based acquisition. Students are given a undertaking which requires them to utilize and develop accomplishments ( pattern and apprehension ) which are tantamount to those used in reliable research. Finally Research-oriented purposes to learn the procedure of cognition building. Typically found in finishing touch classs where pupils undertake some research activity, separately or as a group. Students can be engaged with current research in their subject in a assortment of ways, including talks, academic staff-led seminars, practicals, pupil undertakings and class work. The illustrations below are based on personal experiences where I focus on schemes that attempt to set pupils in active manner as they encounter current research the Mathematical and Information Sciences.1. MSc Computer Games Technology Project Execution ( research oriented )This research learning activity involves oversing a research led Masterss undertaking in the country of Computer Games Technology. The pupils are encouraged to believe every bit creatively as possible to place a research inquiry that they can research and develop in a finishing touch undertaking. At the beginning when developing the research inquiry I guide them to recent articles that have been published and that are aligned with their country of involvement. I besides guarantee that the Masterss pupils are cognizant of the on-going r esearch work at the University which helps to contextualise their acquisition within ‘real life ‘ undertakings. I besides give advice and support on the research procedure. The UAD alumnus properties that may be developed include: A comprehensive apprehension of their primary field and its construction ; Informed by current developments in the country ; Initiating and pull offing originative procedure and Working flexibly and efficaciously with ambiguity, uncertainness, and mistake.2. MSc. in Interdisciplinary and Systems Approach to Environmental Challenges ( ISAEC ) ( research based )I am portion of the programme squad of the new ISAEC programme that will run in 2011 and has been developed around three subjects. Interdisciplinary and Systems Approach to Environmental Challenges. The complex nature of the environment requires an interdisciplinary and systems approach to understanding modern-day environmental challenges. The ISAEC programme will present pupils to a broad scope of scientific subjects relevant to environmental scientific discipline, showing how they can unite to organize a better apprehension of jobs and take to fresh and practical solutions. Fundamentalss of Environmental Science. Cardinal to understanding the environment is a strong apprehension of basic ecological rules, how scientific research should be undertaken and analysed, how procedures could be modelled, and how recent developments in engineering could be applied to understanding modern-day issues and the development of solutions. The ISAEC programme will present pupils to the rules of ecology, to research methods and techniques, statistics and modeling, and progresss in engineering relevant to this interdisciplinary field. Problem-Based Learning Approach. Rather than utilizing the traditional talks, the ISAEC programme will learn pupils through the problem-based acquisition attack where groups will set about extended and in-depth analyses of modern-day environmental challenges. This attack teaches autonomous research and group accomplishments, indispensable for run intoing future challenges long after accomplishments and information learnt at University may go out-of-date. I have developed one of the survey undertakings based on recent research that I was involved in with Aitkens planetary who were commissioned by the UKWIR to look into direction options ( intercessions ) of Phosphate at H2O intervention works. The instance survey I have designed is based on current issues in environmental scientific discipline and addresses the three subjects above and is described below. This is how the job would be presented to the pupil squad who will work in groups to come up with a solution that they will show orally and in the signifier of a written study. Study Project 4: Management OF PHOSPHORUS ACROSS SCOTTISH LANSCAPES AND RIVER SYSTEMS The deficiency of equal degrees of P in agricultural dirts bounds harvest growing and productiveness in many countries. The application of P has been traveling on for decennaries, and taint of land H2O, rivers, lakes, estuarine and coastal Waterss is now recognised as a major environmental concern. Management of P within the environment is supplying a major challenge for regulators and industrial practicians. Given regulative challenges, i.e. environmental quality criterions, it is indispensable that phosphoric life rhythm is reviewed and suggestions how P can be managed in the most cost effectual manner to guarantee long term regulative conformity. The end product of this survey can be used to inform the Water Industry of how to pull off P in the long term. In the consideration of the direction of P across Scots landscapes and river systems, the survey undertaking will turn to the undermentioned areas/questions: Principals of Ecology ( BN1101A ) : Impact of human activities on natural environments, pollution and sustainability. Ecological impact of P in rivers. Bio-solid intervention of P and returning it to the land. Research Methods and Techniques ( BN1102A ) : What sort of sampling, study and/or monitoring is required to inform argument about the direction of phosphoric degrees in the environment? What sort of research lab or field experiments should be undertaken to back up the development of techniques to back up the direction phosphoric in the environment? Modeling and Statistics ( BN1103A ) : Modeling the destiny of P in rivers with different beginnings for effectual ordinance. Progresss in Technology ( BN1104A ) : How to supervise P in river systems. Use of bio-solids in H2O intervention workss. How to pass on and visualise the consequences to a scope of stakeholders including UKWIR. The alumnus properties addressed in this teaching-research linkage activity are: Interpreting and reacting to altering group kineticss ; Defining and developing single functions in squads of assorted formation and intent ; Enquiring and reflecting ; Abstracting, refinement, drive, and synthesizing ; An ability to place the current boundaries of their capable field, a willingness to transgress them, and the cognition to work within the borders and Working flexibly and efficaciously with ambiguity, uncertainness, and mistake.3. 3rd twelvemonth CGT 3D Graphics Programming Module ( Reasearch – led )Applied 3D artworks is an active research country within the University of Abertay. A significant research country is developed and a figure of PhD studentships exist in this country which attracts regular visitants and seminar talkers and industrial spouses and plays host to national conferences. The undergraduates are really cognizant of this and it provides a context and stimulation for the thoughts explored in the faculty. Research done by SIMBIOS and White Spac e in footings of visualistion of complex systems is used to inform and update the application of the 3D graphical techniques described in the talks. Students are encouraged to go to seminars where appropriate and are kept informed of chances within the group. As portion of the appraisals the pupils are to develop a peculiar technique or consequence in 3D artworks. Students pick this based on a game screen shooting they like or a new technique that has merely been published in the SIGGRAPH or EuroViz diaries that I discuss in the talks. The alumnus attributes that may be developed by set abouting this activity include: A comprehensive apprehension of their primary field and its construction ; Initiating and pull offing originative procedure ; Abstracting, refinement, drive, and synthesizing ; Working flexibly and efficaciously with ambiguity, uncertainness, and mistake ; i? ¬ An consciousness of the probationary nature of cognition, how cognition is created, advanced and renewed, a nd the exhilaration of altering cognition.4. Nuffield undertaking ( Research – oriented )During the summer I supervised a Nuffield pupil undertaking that was look intoing the usage of an emerging engineering, augmented world, in Urban Planning. At the beginning of the 6 hebdomad undertakings I sat down with the pupil and we discussed my research involvements and the possible ends of the undertaking and we came up with several experiments that would be undertaken to measure if augmented world could be used in urban planning utilizing trade good hardware. Once all the hardware and package was set up the pupil worked through the experiments. Although the pupil was in 5th twelvemonth at school she felt portion of the research procedure as we jointly discussed and decided what experiments we would run. I felt this was an of import procedure in acquiring the pupil engaged with the research activity from the beginning. It must be noted nevertheless that I was a small unsure about th is at the beginning as depending on the pupil ‘s assurance this may hold been an daunting procedure but for this instance it worked good. Properties which may hold been developed include: Informed by current developments in the country ; An consciousness of the probationary nature of cognition, how cognition is created, advanced and renewed, and the exhilaration of altering cognition ; The ability to place and analyze jobs and issues to explicate, measure and use evidence-based solutions and statements and An ability to deploy techniques of analysis and question. 5. Maestro categories in Mathematicss and Computing ( Research – led ) For this 1 hr activity I try and stimulate the involvement of primary 7 and 1st twelvemonth students in Mathematicss and Computing. I do this by concentrating on real-world jobs that they can associate to i.e. how can we picture accurate gesture and motions of ‘things ‘ in computing machine picture games? I use many ocular AIDSs and towards the terminal I describe some of the cardinal challenges that we need to turn to in the close hereafter and associate this to my current research and how this can assist in other Fieldss such as environmental scientific disciplines.DecisionThere are many barriers to implanting learning and research within the course of study. I have highlighted what can be done at an institutional degree to relieve this issue and described three institutional intercessions employed by the University of Abertay including new policies, heightening alumnus properties and get the better ofing disciplinary civilizations. I have besides described what I have done at the single degree. In decision at the single degree I feel that I try and incorporate learning and research linkages at all degrees of my instruction. I evidently do this for the pupils rational development but it is necessary for me to be interested and excited by what I am learning and being cognizant of the latest developments is cardinal. Research-teaching linkages may be easier for me to develop as I am research active although it is non the measure of research that is associated with quality of instruction. For illustration a recent survey by Prosser et Al ( 2004 ) determined it is the overall conceptualization of your capable affair that is associated with quality of learning. † It is non how active you are as a research worker, but what your activity is focused on † . One unfavorable judgment though is that I may non pass adequate clip doing the teaching-research linkages explicit to the pupils. From mapping my teaching-research activities to the quarter- circles of Fig 1 it appears that I do non set about research-tutored activities. I had non truly considered this manner of teaching-research activity before but it could be utile in a figure of contexts in which I teach. Given most of my instruction activity is at degree 9 and above I do non meet the known troubles associated with using teaching-research activities at degree 7 and 8 ( Fasli 2007 ) . However I acknowledge attempt is required to make a meaningful teaching-research relationship and work has to be done to do certain the nexus is expressed.

Costs, perfect competition, monopolies, monopolistic competition Essay

* Total Cost = market value of inputs firm uses in production * Profit = TR – TC * Costs of production = opportunity costs of output of goods and services * Explicit costs = input costs that require outlay of money by firm * i. e. $1000 spent on flour = opportunity cost of $1000 because can’t be spent elsewhere * Implicit costs = input costs that do not require outlay of money by firm * i. e. working as baker at $10/hour, but could be making $20/hour as a computer analyst * Economists include both costs, while accountants often ignore implicit costs * Important implicit cost = opportunity cost of capital. * i. e. use $300,000 savings to buy factory, but could have invested it at interest rate of 5%/year * ? forgone $15,000/year in interest income = implicit opportunity cost of business * i. e. use $100,000 savings and borrow $200,000 from bank * Explicit cost will now include $10,000 paid to bank in interest * Opportunity cost is still $15,000 (OC of $10,000 paid to bank is $10,000 and there is a forgone interest savings of $5000) * Economic profit = TR – TC (including both explicit and implicit costs) * Accounting profit = TR – TEC (total explicit costs). * Consequently, accounting profit is often > economic profit * For economist, business is only profitable if it can cover all explicit and implicit costs Production & Costs * In short run = size of factory is fixed because it cannot be built overnight, but output can be varied by varying the number of workers * In long run = size of factory and number of workers can be varied * Production function: relationship b/w quantity of inputs used to make a good and the quantity of output of that good (short-run) * Marginal product = increase in output that arises from additional unit of input * MP = ? TP/? Q * Law of diminishing marginal product = property whereby the marginal product of an input declines as the quantity of the input increases * Slope of production function (quantity of input vs. quantity of output) = marginal product * Graph become â€Å"flatter† as marginal product decreases (see graph) * Total cost curve = graph w/ quantity produced on x-axis and total cost on y-axis * Graph becomes â€Å"steeper† as quantity of output increases (see graph). * Fixed costs = costs that do not vary with quantity of output produced * i.e. rent of factory, bookkeeper’s salary etc. * Variable costs = costs that do vary with the quantity of output produced * i. e. cost of raw materials, wages of workers (increases as more output produced) etc. * Average Total Cost = TC/Q * Also equal to average fixed cost + average variable cost * Average fixed cost = FC/Q * Average variable cost = VC/Q * Marginal cost = increase in total cost arising from an extra unit of production * MC = ? TC/? Q * Marginal cost rises as the quantity of output produced rises (see graph) Typical Cost Curves * In many firms, MP does not start to diminish immediately after hiring 1st worker * 2nd or 3rd worker may actually have higher MP than first, b/c a team of workers can divide tasks and work more productively than a single worker * AFC, AVC, MC, and ATC will look different for this scenario Costs in the Short Run and in the Long Run. * Division of total cost between fixed and variable costs depends on time horizon * In a few months, GM cannot adjust number/size of factories, only workers * Cost of factories, is therefore, fixed cost in short run * Over several years, however, GM can expand size and number of factories * Cost of factories, is therefore, variable cost in long run * Because fixed costs become variable in the long run, the ATC curve in short run differs from the ATC curve in the long-run * Long-run ATC is much flatter than short-run ATC * Short-run curves also lie on or above long-run curves. * Properties arise because firms have greater flexibility in the long run – can choose which short-run curve they wish to use * In short-run, b/c of diminishing marginal product, increasing quantity of output increases ATC * In long-run, there are situations where ATC does not change with an increase in output * Constant Returns to Scale: long-run ATC stays same as quantity of output changes * Diseconomies of Scale: long-run ATC rises as quantity of output increases . * Often arises because in large organizations, coordination problems arise – difficult to organize and mobilize vast amounts of labour and raw materials * Economies of Scale: long-run ATC falls as quantity of output increases * Often arises because at higher production levels, workers can specialize * Analysis explains why long-run ATC curves are often U-Shaped * Long-run ATC falls at low levels of production b/c of increasing specialization, and rises at high levels of production b/c of increasing coordination problems What is a competitive market? * Perfectly competitive market has two characteristics: (1) many buyers and many sellers in the market, (2) goods offered by various sellers are largely the same * Goal of perfectly competitive markets is to maximize profits * Actions of any single buyer or seller in market has negligible impact on market price * Each buyer and seller takes market price as given * i. e. no single buyer of milk can influence the price of milk because the buyer purchases a small amount relative to the size of the market * Each seller of milk also as little influence on price of milk, because it is selling milk that is virtually identical to the milk of other sellers. * B/c they must accept market price, buyers and sellers in competitive market = â€Å"price takers† * i. e.if a dairy farm doubles its output of milk, the price of milk remains the same, but their total revenue will double * Total revenue will increase because increase in quantity sold, not increase in price * Sometimes, (3) characteristic of competitive market also used – firms can freely enter or exit the market in the long run * Average revenue = total revenue/quantity sold. * AR = TR/Q * For all firms, average revenue equals the price of the good * Marginal revenue= change in total revenue from an additional unit sold * MR = ? TR/? Q * For all competitive firms, marginal revenue equals the price of the good Three general rules of profit-maximization: * If MR > MC, firm should increase its output * If MR < MC, firm should decrease its output * At the profit-maximizing level of output, MR = MC * Remember, because a competitive firm is a price taker, its MR is equal to the market price Note: In essence, because the firm’s marginal-cost curve determines the quantity of the good the firm is willing to supply at any price, it is the competitive firm’s supply curve Firm’s Short-Run Decision to Shut Down * Shut-down refers to short-run decision to not produce anything during a specific period of time b/c of current market conditions. * Exit refers to a long-run decision to leave the market * Firm that shuts down temporarily still has to pay fixed costs, whereas a firm that exits the market saves fixed costs and variable costs * i. e.if farmer decides not to produce crops one season, rent for land becomes sunk cost, but if farmer decides to sell farm altogether, no sunk costs * Firm shuts down if total revenue from production is less than its variable costs of production * Shut down if TR < VC * Alternatively, shut down if TR/Q < VC/Q . * Which means, shut down if P < AVC * On graph, if market price is less than minimum point on AVC curve, firm shuts down and ceases production – firm can re-open if market price changes to be higher than minimum point * Therefore, point at which MC intersects AVC is the â€Å"shutdown price† * If a firm shuts down temporarily, its fixed costs are sunk costs * Firm can safely ignore these costs when deciding how much to produce * i. e. why don’t many restaurants close down at lunch time when they are nearly empty? * Because the fixed costs (rent, kitchen equipment, plates, silverware etc. ) would still have to be paid, only the variable costs (cost of additional food and wages to stuff) would be saved * Owner can make enough profit to cover these variable costs, and therefore, keeps the restaurant open Firm’s Long-Run Decision to Exit or Enter a Market * The firm exits the market if the revenue it would get from producing is less than its total costs * Exit of TR < TC * Alternatively, exit if TR/Q < TC/Q * Which means, exit if P < ATC and enter if P > ATC * Therefore, point at which MC intersects ATC is the â€Å"exit/entry price† Measuring Profits from Graphs * Recall, Profit = TR – TC. * Alternatively, Profit = (TR/Q – TC/Q) x Q * Which means, Profit = (P – ATC) x Q The Supply Curve in a Competitive Market * So far we have examined supply decision of single firm – now examining supply curve of market * Two possibilities – short term = fixed number of firms, long term = firms can enter and exit The Short-Run: Market Supply with a Fixed Number of Firms * In short-run, the number of firms in the market is fixed * As a result, the market supply curve reflects the individual firms’ marginal-cost curves, only with increased magnitude (both graphs same, but market quantity multiplied by some scalar value) The Long-Run: Market Supply with Entry and Exit. * Assume all firms and all potential firms have same cost curves * If firms already in market are profitable, new firms will have incentive to enter the market * Entry if P >ATC because profit is positive (recall, Profit = (P – ATC) x Q) * Entry = expand # of firms, increase quantity of good supplied, and drive down prices and profits * If firms already in market are experiencing losses, firms may exit the market * Exit if P < ATC because profit is negative * Exit = decrease # of firms, decrease quantity of good supplied, and drive up prices and profits * At the end of this process of entry and exist, firms that remain the market must be making zero economic profit * In other words, the process of entry and exist ends only when price and average total cost are driven to equality (P = ATC). * This has a surprising implication—we earlier noticed that firms produce so that P = MC * We just noted that free entry and exist forced P = ATC * The only way this can occur is of MC = ATC, and this occurs only when the firm is operating at the minimum of average total cost—called the â€Å"efficient scale† * ? long-run equilibrium of a competitive market with free entry and exit must have firms operating at their efficient scale * Long-run supply curve (market) will be horizontal at the price which corresponds to the minimum of average total cost * Any P above this level generates profit, leading to entry and increase in total quantity supplied * Any P (price) below this level creates losses, leading to exit + decrease in total quantity supplied * Eventually, number of firms in market adjusts so P = minimum of ATC, and there are enough firms to satisfy all the demand at this price Why do competitive firms stay in business if they make zero profit? * Remember that economic profits are not the same as accounting profits * Economic profit accounts for opportunity cost as well * So, when a firm makes zero economic profit, it may still be making accounting profits A Shift in Demand in the Short Run and Long Run * Because firms can enter and exit more easily in the long run than in the short run, the long-run supply curve is typically more elastic than the short-run supply curve Chapter 15: Monopoly Why Monopolies Arise. * Firm is monopoly if it is sole seller of its product and if its product has no close substitutes * Case of monopoly is barriers to entry: a monopoly remains only seller in a market because other firms cannot enter market and compete with it * Barriers to entry are monopoly resources, government-created monopolies, and natural monopolies Monopoly Resources. * Single firm owns a key resource * i. e. only one well in town and no way to get water from anywhere else * Rarely occurs because economies are large and resourced owned by many people Government-Created Monopolies * Government gives one person or firm exclusive right to sell good or service * Two important examples are patent and copyright laws * Both lead to higher prices than under competition, but encourage desirable behaviour * Drug companies allowed patents to encourage research, and authors allowed copyrights so they write more original books * Monopoly = increased incentive for creative activity, but at a higher cost Natural Monopolies. * Single firm can supply good or service to entire market at lower cost than could 2 or more firms * Occurs when firm has economies of scale over relevant range of output * In other words, firm’s ATC curve continually declines because when production is divided among more firms, each firm produces less, and ATC rises – single firm can produce as smallest cost * i. e. to provide water to town, firm must build network of water pipes – if two firms involved, both would have to pay fixed cost of water pipe, resulting in increased ATC. * Natural monopoly = less concern about new entrants * Normal monopoly’s profits attract entrants to market, but in a natural monopoly, new entrants cannot achieve same low costs that monopolist enjoys * If a market expands (greater demand) natural monopoly can evolve into competitive market Monopoly vs. Competition. * Monopoly can influence market price of output, while competitive firm cannot * As monopoly is sole producer in market, it can alter price of good by adjusting supply to market * Demand curve for competitive market is perfectly elastic (can sell as little or as much as it wants at one price), while down-ward sloping for monopoly * ? monopoly has to accept lower price to sell more output, and can only accept higher price by selling less output – so what price and quantity will it choose to maximize profits? Monopoly’s Revenue * AR = price of good (true for monopoly and competitive), but MR is not equal to price of good. * As a result, average-revenue curve is also monopolist’s demand curve * When monopolist increases quantity sold, has two effects on total revenue (P x Q): 1) the output effect = more output sold, so Q is higher, which trends to increase total revenue 2) the price effect = price falls, so P is lower, which tends to decrease total revenue * Competitive firm as no price effects – price taker, therefore can sell as little or as much as it wants, without any change in price * ? Output/price effect causes monopolist’s MR after first unit sold to always be less than price of the good * Consequently, monopoly’s marginal-revenue curve always lies below its demand curve Profit Maximization * Profit-maximizing quantity of output as determined by intersection of MR and MC curve * Some key differences between monopolies and competitive firms: * P = MR = MC (competitive). * P > MR = MC * In competitive markets, price equals marginal cost, and in monopolized markets, price exceeds marginal cost – crucial to understanding the social cost of monopoly Monopoly’s Profits * Recall, Profit = TR – TC * Alternatively, Profit = (TR/Q – TC/Q) x Q * Which means, Profit = (P – ATC) x Q * Same as in competitive markets Monopoly Drugs vs. Generic Drugs * What happens to price of a drug with patent runs out? * Monopoly firm maximizes profit by producing quantity at which MR = MC, and charging price well above MC * Therefore, when patent runs out, the price of the good falls to MC * Note: MC for drugs is almost always constant. * Monopolist does not lose all market, however, because many buyers remain loyal to brand-name, and therefore, brand-name can still sell at slightly higher price than â€Å"generic brands† Welfare Cost of Monopoly * Monopolies = higher prices than competitive firms = undesirable for consumers = desirable for producers in terms of total revenue * Is it possible that monopoly is desirable from the standpoint of society as a whole? * Recall total surplus measures well-being of buyers and sellers in a market * Producer surplus is amount producers receive for a good – (minus) their costs of producing it * Consumer surplus is consumers’ willingness to pay for a good – amount they actually pay for it * In this case, single producer is monopolist The Deadweight Loss * Consider case of a â€Å"benevolent social planner†. * Social planner care not only about profit earned by firm’s owners, but also benefits received by the firm’s consumers * Planner tries to maximize total surplus, which is producer surplus (profit) plus consumer surplus * Alternatively, value of good to consumers – costs of making the good to monopoly producer * Demand curve reflects value of good to consumers *. Marginal cost curve reflects cost to the monopolist * Consequently, the socially efficient quantity is found were the demand curve and marginal-cost curve intersect * If social planner were running the monopoly, he would achieve efficient outcome by charging the price found at the intersection of demand curve (AR-curve) and the MC curve – much like a competitive market * However, monopolists charge the price found at the intersection of the MC and MR curve * ? the monopolist produces less than the socially efficient quantity of output, and charges more than the socially efficient price * When the monopolist charges a price higher than the marginal cost, some potential consumers value the good higher than the MC but lower than the monopolist’s price * Consumers do not buy the good, and monopoly pricing prevents mutually beneficial trade * The deadweight loss triangle = total surplus lost = reduction in economic well-being from monopoly Is Deadweight Loss a Social Problem? * Not necessarily a problem for society * Welfare in monopolized market includes welfare or both consumers and producers * When a consumer pays extra dollar to producer because of monopoly price, consumer is worse off by a dollar, and producer is better off by same amount * Transfer from consumer to producer does not affect total surplus—sum of consumer and producer surplus * Unless, consumers are for some reason more deserving than producers—a normative judgement about equity that goes beyond realm of economic efficiency. * Problem arises because firm produces and sells a quantity of output below the level that maximizes total surplus Price Discrimination * Business practice of selling the same good at different prices to different consumers * Can occur in a monopoly (firm with market power), not in a competitive market * In competitive market, many firms selling same good at market price—no one would lower market price for any customer as they can sell any given quantity at one price * Increasing price would also be pointless, as customer would simply buy from another firm A Parable about Pricing. * Dry-cleaning example from class – charge adults $10 and charge students $5 with a stdent card * Choosing to forgo market of students at $5 results in deadweight loss because students do not end up putting their shirts into dry-cleaning, though they value the service more than its MC of production * With price-discrimination, however, everyone ends up with a shirt . * Price discrimination can eliminate the inefficiency inherent in monopoly pricing, because differentiating prices allows producer to charge customer price closer to customer’s willingness to pay than is possible with a single price Notes about Price-Discrimination * Monopolist must be able to separate customers according to willingness to pay—either geographically, by age, by income etc. * Arbitrage prevents price-discrimination – process of buying good in one market at a low price and selling it in another market for a higher price * Increased welfare from price-discrimination is all higher producer surplus, not consumer surplus * Adults/students no better off from having cleaned shirts—paid price they were willing to pay * Entire increase in total surplus is a result of higher profits for the monopolist The Analytics of Price Discrimination. Perfect price discrimination = situation in which a monopolist knows exactly the willingness to pay of each customer and can charge each customer different prices accordingly * Monopolist gets the enter surplus in every transaction * Also sometimes referred to as first-degree price discrimination * Refer to diagrams (a) and (b). * (a) firm charges single price above MC, and b/c some potential customer who values good at more than MC does not buy it at this high price, monopoly causes deadweight loss * (b) each customer who values good at more than MC buys good and is charged willingness to pay – mutually beneficial trade takes place, no deadweight loss, and entire surplus derived from market goes to monopoly producer in form of profit * Of course, in real life, price discrimination is never perfect because various customers are willing to pay various different prices – two forms of imperfect price discrimination . * 1) second-degree price discrimination = charging different prices to same customer depending on quantity of product bought * 2) third-degree price discrimination = market can be segmented and segments have different elasticities of demand * i. e. movie theatres charge lower price for children and senior citizens than for other patrons * Makes little sense in a competitive market, where price = MC, and MC for providing seat to child/senior citizen is same as anyone else. * If movie theatre has local monopoly, however, price-discrimination has motives * Demand curve for adults is less elastic, therefore can charge higher price, whereas demand curve for children/seniors is more elastic, therefore can charge lower price * How does imperfect price discrimination affect welfare? * Compared to monopoly outcome with single price, imperfect price discrimination can raise, lower, or leave unchanged total surplus in a market—however, always raises monopoly’s profits Examples of Price Discrimination * Airline Prices – charge less if stay over Saturday night or purchase two weeks ahead to separate personal travellers, from business travellers, who pay more * Discount Coupons – rich, busy executive will not clip coupons, whereas a unemployed individual will, allowing price discrimination * Financial Aid – separate wealthy students willing to pay high tuition from less well-off students * Quantity Discounts – bulk is cheaper because customer’s willingness to pay for an additional unit declines as the customer buys more units Public Policy towards Monopolies. * Monopolies fail to allocate resources efficiently * Produce less than socially desirable quantity of output * Charge prices above marginal cost Policymaker’s Response * Increasing Competition with Competition Law – for example, mergers * Regulation – natural monopolies not allowed charging whatever price they want, but what price should government set of a natural monopoly? * One might conclude set P = MC, so customers equal quantity of output that maximizes total surplus, and allocation of resources is efficient * However, natural monopolies always have declining ATC ? MC < ATC, if P = MC, then P < ATC, and firm loses money and exits industry * Government can subsidize monopolist and pick up losses inherent to MC-pricing, but would need to raise money through taxation for subsidy, and taxes have own deadweight loss * Alternatively, regulators can allow monopolist to charge price higher than MC, and if regulated P equals ATC, monopolist earns exactly zero economic profit * Yet, average-cost pricing leads to deadweight losses b/c monopolist’s price no longer reflects MC or producing good * Ultimate problem with MC- and AC-pricing is it gives monopolist no incentive to reduce costs—normally reduce costs to increase profits, but in these cases, monopolist will not benefit * Solution: keep some benefits from lower costs in form of higher profit, and practice something that is a small departure from MC-pricing. * Public Ownership—government owns natural monopoly instead of private firm * Doing Nothing—degree of â€Å"market failure† in economy smaller than â€Å"political failure† in gov’t Differences and Similarities | Competition| Monopoly| Similarities| Goal of firms| Maximize profits| Maximize profits| Rule for maximizing| MR = MC| MR = MC| Can earn economic profits in short run? | Yes| Yes| Differences| Number of Firms| Many| One| Marginal Revenue| MR = P| MR < P| Price| P = MC| P > MC| Produces welfare-maximizing level of output? | Yes| No| Entry in long run? | Yes| No| Can earn economic profits in long run? | No| Yes| Price discrimination possible? | No| Yes| Chapter 16: Monopolistic Competition. * Oligopoly: market structure in which only a few sellers offer similar or identical products * Concentration ratio: percentage of total output in market supplied by four largest firms * Monopolistic competition: market structure in which many firms sell products that are similar but not identical—following qualities: * Many sellers ? firms competing for same group of customers. * Product differentiation ? downward-sloping demand curve * Free entry and exit ? market adjusts until economic profits driven to zero Monopolistically Competitive Firm in the Short Run * Products are different ? faces downward-sloping demand curve * Same profit maximization rule as monopoly (Q at MR = MC and equivalent P on demand curve) * Identical to monopoly The Long Run Equilibrium. * When firms make profit in the short-run, new firm have incentive to enter the market * Demand curve shifts to left (reduces demand of each individual firm) * As demand for firms’ fall, firms experience declining profit * Conversely, when firms incur losses in short-run, firms exit * Demand curves shift to right (demand experienced by individual firms increases) * As demand for firms’ products rises, firms experience rising profit. * Entry/exit continues until firms in market make zero economic profit (P = ATC) * Demand curve is tangent to ATC (just touching, never crossing) * Characteristics of long-run equilibrium in monopolistic competition * As in monopoly market, P > MC (for profit maximization, MR = MC, and downward-sloping demand curve makes MR < P) * As in competitive market, P = ATC (free entry and exit drive economic profit to 0) Monopolistic vs. Perfect Competition Excess Capacity. * Entry and exit drive each firm in monopolistically competitive market to point of tangency between demand and ATC curves * However, this means quantity produced is less than that produced at the â€Å"efficient scale† –quantity that minimizes ATC (point at which MC intersects with ATC) * Perfectly competitive firms produce at the efficient scale * Monopolistically competitive firms therefore have excess capacity—they are not producing as much as they potentially can * Firm forgoes opportunity to produce more because it would need to cut prices to sell the additional output * More profitable to continue operating at excess capacity Markup over Marginal Cost. * Relationship between Price and Marginal Cost also different * Competitive firm, P = MC * Monopolistic competition, P > MC, because it must be for P = ATC * This leads to behavioural differences b/w perfect and monopolistic competitors * Perfectly competitive firm does not care for additional customers because P = MC, profit from extra unit sold is always zero * By contrast, monopolistically competitive firms P > MC, therefore, extra units sold = more profit Monopolistic Competition and Welfare of Society * One source of inefficiency is that P > MC * Some consumers who value good at more than MC, but less than P will not buy the good * ? deadweight loss similar to that of monopoly pricing * Another source of inefficiency is: 1) Product-variety externality: b/c consumers get some consumer surplus from introduction of new product, entry of new firm conveys +ve externality on consumers 2) Business-stealing externality: b/c other firms lose customers and profits from entry of a new competitor, entry of new firm imposes negative externality on existing firms * Perfectly competitive firms produce identical goods and charge P = MC, therefore neither externality exists under perfect competition * ? Monopolistically competitive markets do not have desirable welfare properties of perfectly competitive markets because it is not ensured that total surplus is maximized * Also very difficult to control these inefficiencies through public policy Advertising * Amount of advertising depends on products * Firm that sells highly differentiated consumer goods i. e.soft drinks, will need to advertise more than seller of undifferentiated industrial nails, or homogenous products like wheat * Some people critique advertising for convincing people that products are more different than they actually are, fostering brand loyalty and encouraging consumers to ignore price differences * With less elastic demand curve, firm charges larger markup over MC. * Support for brands suggests that brands provide consumers with information about quality of goods, and gives firms incentive to maintain high quality to protect reputation of brand names * Others believe encourages competition as it makes customers better informed about products * Advertising can signal quality of product as well, because firm willing to spend money on advertising must be creating a good product.

Culture Briefing. Nicaragua Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Culture Briefing. Nicaragua - Research Paper Example As such, all systems and strategies of leadership have to address themselves to these unique attributes in order to achieve some level of meaning and efficiency. Nicaragua has gone through a troubled history with challenges on nearly all the spheres of her national life. Appropriating these challenges into opportunities is a leadership skill that entails strategy, reflection, and judgment. Nicaragua is situated in Central America on the borders of Honduras and Costa Rica to the North and South respectively. Nicaragua’s geographical positioning places it within the tropics. The Pacific Ocean and the Caribbean Sea surround the country to the west and east respectively. In terms of size, Nicaragua remains the largest country in Central America. Two lowlands and a highland divide the country (Gritzner, 2010). The lowlands are the Pacific lowlands and the Caribbean lowlands while the central highland situates at the center of the country. In this regard, it follows that much of the country features significant aspects of geographical features that relate to the highland and the two lowlands. Nicaragua remains one of the biologically unique countries due to its unique ecosystems, which thrive within the fertile areas of the country. The element of biodiversity features among the country’s attraction as a destination of tourism and research.In essence, some of the issues that attend to the element of diversity have to be regarded in terms of the distinguishing geographical features that separate the country into its unique aspects. It might be argued that the determination of the country’s diversity is to be determined through a vast array of features that determine the manner in which it relates to the element of diversity. In this regard, some of the issues that attend to the element of diversity have to be considered within the context of geographical uniqueness and the rich tropical climate that enables the thriving of the diverse ecosystem in the Central American country (Staten, 2010). Its vast geographical space offers unique advantages that connect within the social and environmental spheres as understood within the element of cultural diversity. The history of Nicaragua weaves together the origin, lives, and experiences of the original inhabitants and the indigenous groups of the region before bringing out the various aspe cts of life that connect with the experiences of colonialism and the struggles of the post-colonial country. The original inhabitants of Nicaragua were people who spoke the Chibcha language. They lived simple lives and practiced hunting and gathering as their mainstay. The original inhabitants lacked permanent places as they kept shifting from one region to another, within the vast countryside, in search for food and water. Conflicts between them and other indigenous group led to migrations and settlements in areas that would later define the different ethnic compositions of Nicaragua (Baracco, 2005). However, the inhabitants who made the most significant impact on the history of Nicaragua were the people of Nicarao ethnic group from whom the name Nicaragua was derived. These people later encountered the Spanish conquers who mingled with the native women leading to the mixed race of the mixed race that constitutes the dominant race of the people of Nic

English Paper Essay I will upload for what is needed

English Paper I will upload for what is needed - Essay Example Terry Bisson is a fantasy author, best known for his short stories. Several of his stories are award winning. He also wrote several comic books including â€Å"Web of horror†, which is a horror comic magazine. â€Å"Bears discover fire† is one of the most preferred short science fiction stories. As claimed by the author, the story is exactly what its title suggests. Once upon a time in a place called Appalachia, all of the bears started burning bonfires in the widespread freeways. They used to assemble themselves in a circle and stare into the flame all night long. During the ritual, they intermittently get up from the fire to find barriers or hunt for firewood. The news media and police wanted to capture the occurrence and made sure they kept the local folks away from the ritual. The story begins when one family manages to get to a very close proximity of the bears’ social gathering due to a flat tire. (Whyte) The story begins with Chronicler driving with his brother and nephew, Wallace jr. to the North of Bowling Green, when he experienced a flat tire near a bear military camp. Their flash light goes out and the narrator had to change the tire in the dim glow of orange light that was coming from the torches held by two bears. â€Å"They just held the torches up, whether out of curiosity or for helpfulness, there was no way of knowing† (P:2, Bisson ) Afterwards, in the car, the narrator’s brother comments that it seemed like finally the bears had discovered fire. Use of fire is the well-built western icon of civilization and intelligence. This symbol is often used to separate humans from the animal kingdom. Fire describes humanity in a cultural level. The narrator states a number of events in the story that depict the decline of humanity in human beings. Meanwhile, bears are discovering what humanity and civilization is. One event was the disappearance of the narrator’s mother from a nursing home and

Globalization Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Globalization - Research Paper Example DJ Khaled is one of the Arabic rappers who raps in English. He has songs with Lil Wayne, Rick Ross and Akon. Other people are like Super Saian Crew, Satam and Abady who are Arabs and rap well. Rap music is a popular music in the Arab world because of globalization and it has affected the Arab culture and changed young Arab people. Specially the blend of the Arabian and the English music has gave rise to a new genre of music that is quite unlike the conventional music in Arabia. This kind of music affects our culture, especially the young generation who grow up with it and not with Arab culture. The young generation is induced by this kind of music and they like it very much. This kind of music might let the person to speak out. People can say what they feel through this kind of music about surroundings. They will write their own words. As a result this kind of music focuses on the freedom of  speech. It is new way to express  oneself musically. The increased freedom of expression is both good and bad for the society in many ways. Sometimes, people speak out too much in the name of freedom that hurts the feelings of others.

Advise VALCOs management about possible ways of managing a cash Essay

Advise VALCOs management about possible ways of managing a cash deficit in the short and long-term - Essay Example For example, the actual cash disbursements exceed budgeted cash out flow for wages and taxes, amount payable for supplies, or even dividend payments to shareholders. This being said, a firm usually prepares a cash budget before time to forecast the cash disbursements and receivables it will realize in near future. The cash inflow is subtracted from cash outflow (or payments) and the result is a cash deficit or a cash surplus depending on which amount is higher than the other. A cash deficit, when not financed, will carry over the next period. Consistent deficits of the cash budget reflect inefficient cash management, and because cash is an important resource, it has to be managed effectively. There are many ways to manage a cash deficit in the short term. Short term means a period of one year or less. Valco has two options to finance its cash deficit in the short term. The first is through making some changes internally and second is using external means to finance the deficit. By internal changes what is meant are changes in Valco’s policies. First, the company must strive to reduce the debtor cycle. Debtor cycle refers to the number of days it takes debtors to pay for the credit sales. Quick recovery from debtors will ensure that cash is not tied up in the form of account receivable and is free to be used to pay other expenses. Another option that Valco has is to reduce its credit sales. This however, does not come without repercussion as it may mean a reduction in overall sales revenue if Valco stops giving the option of credit to its customers. Valco can try to reduce its credit sales (and hence the amount tied up in debtors) by offering cash/trade discounts i f the customers pay in cash at the time of transaction. This will encourage cash sales and therefore a flow of cash payments. (Davoren, n.d.)Also, as the evidence from the question suggests, the raw material stock was increased for the second month, this means

Answer Questions1. Why do you think gender is an important aspect of Essay

Answer Questions1. Why do you think gender is an important aspect of environment-society relations 2. Imagine that you are - Essay Example Males and females use resources distinctively and possess distinct responsibilities in the community. To maintain efficiency, strategies to conserve the environment should thus pay close concentration to the effect of differences between females and males on availability of resources and probabilities. Several individuals apart from worrying concerning class and race, they are as well concerned about environmental justice research on the responsibility of gender in environmental changes, disaster, and politics, a system generally known as eco-feminist. In a shocking number of instances, females have led complaints against dangerous materials. Women constitute 60%-80% of the membership of conventional environmental institutions; however, they appear even further highly in grassroots institutions handling environmental wellbeing and associated matters. The antitoxins parties of the historic half century have greatly remained ruled by females, as well as great profile scientists such as Rachel Carson, including national activists such as Lois Gibbs and Erin Brockovich. Many people claim this is so since role for the wellbeing and caring for the family customarily falls to females in several traditions, hence they are the first to detect, and act to object environmental hazards that are items of industrialist creation. This rank in the family is nevertheless, not founded on any intrinsic features of females. However, it is a societal situation, which branches, in the contemporary economic scheme. Traditionally, males were taken away from the home surroundings to do salary job, and females were left at the residence and provided the role to offer clothing, food, and different primary essentials for the whole family (Geo 103, Binoy, 2013). Similarly, the views and interests of females in this state have been at instances sadly ignored by professionals. Females always launch first protests concerning what are just later recognized as key environmental disasters. For e xample, in the case of Love Canal, a notorious New York housing development fraught with asthma, urinary tract diseases, and epilepsy that was finally revealed to be placed atop chemical dissipate, female protesters were send away as â€Å"hysterical housewives†. This categorization by the media and by the organizations engaged in dumping was applied to claim that the female protesters had inadequate understanding, professionalism, or lucid judgment. Protesters mainly females, who hold further experiential opinions of what kinds of environmental challenges the community encounters test this scientism. This type of association to the environment means that females always detect subtle reforms in the environment that may be overlooked by huge environmental teams further concerned with matters such as wilderness or biodiversity conservation (Geo 103, Binoy, 2013). A different dimension where gender is evident is in the mining industry. Mining is an old human task, with a ‘ troubled’ past and a challenging association with economic growth. Arguments do not conclude there; mining has as well turned to intensely associated with masculinity. Despite it being naturalized in several ways, masculinity is not the ordinary method of mining; this method of reasoning does not value

Why Mama Gives the Quilts to Maggie rather than Dee Essay

Why Mama Gives the Quilts to Maggie rather than Dee - Essay Example Culture connects one with his/her ancestry and helps the person to relate to his/her social group, this is the message conveyed in this story. So, this paper will analyze how the person who holds on to her culture and heritage was finally rewarded. â€Å"Everyday Use† by Alice Walker involves three different characters, a mother and her two daughters and reflects their directly opposite views about African-American culture. All the three main characters of the short story, â€Å"Everyday use†, ‘Mama’, Dee and Maggie are different with different characteristics, with the two daughters particularly contrasting. Dee is portrayed as being the successful, beautiful but at the same time arrogant woman, with false pride about her heritage. While Maggie is a disfigured, slow at the same time simple girl with lot of pride in tradition and heritage. â€Å"Have you ever seen a lame animal, perhaps a dog run over by some careless person rich enough to own a car, sidle up to someone who is ignorant enough to be kind to him? That is the way my Maggie walks† (Walker, 25). ‘Mama’ introduces herself as â€Å"a large, big-boned woman with rough, man-working hands†. So the Mama could be const ructed as women with good physical strength. ‘Mama’ always showed a lot of responsibility to both her daughters and tried hard to give both of them a better life. As both the daughters were different in every aspect, all theirs friction were handled with care by her. Dee has been like that even from her childhood and always played an independent role in the family. While, Maggie because of her lack of physical beauty and low confidence had a subdued existence. Importantly she didn’t show any rudeness and lived a calm life. So, the point to be noted is, even though both the girls are very different they had a good relationship until the object of quilts entered the picture. The elder daughter Dee, because of the influence of Black

Shifting Geographies of Production and Consumption Essay

Shifting Geographies of Production and Consumption - Essay Example The late seventies, the eighties and the nineties all were dominated by the Japanese manufacturers. Even in the 21st century this dominance is not only visible but disturbingly complex with geographical concentration shifting in directions that defy economic sense and reinforce the multinationals’ perception of competition. The automobile industry has some peculiar characteristics when it comes to the question of concentration. There is a common tendency for every industry to be agglomerated geographically. However the automobile industry has a typical tendency for such geographical agglomeration. For instance within the frontiers of a country, a regional concentration would mean many manufacturers of an industry concentrating their output in a particularly advantageous geographical region such as Detroit in America. The same region would act as a focal point for international companies, thus completing an international cycle of geographic attraction. The automobile industry has some peculiarities in shifting the geographic epicenter of activity away from the initial centers of development to newer more demand-centric market–oriented regions in the globe. During the last three decades manufacturing centers have been shifted from low-cost, skilled-labour, market-centric regions to still low-cost, skilled-labour, market-centric regions elsewhere, e.g. China and India in Asia, East European countries in Europe and Latin America. Markets beckon not only the industry but also individual manufacturers. Toyota Motor Corporation, Mitsubishi Motor Company, Nissan Motor Company and Honda Motor Company, all of Japan first entered the European Union (EU) to make use of tariff-free entry into the then flourishing market for automobiles. Next they entered the North American enclave. Finally they are making entry into the Latin American and East European markets. The Japanese management and labour practices are rather

Analysis Odwalla Case Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Analysis Odwalla Case - Essay Example In this case, it is Greg Steltenpohl who is currently recognized as a company founder and chairman (p. 422).the business was his brain child, and he revealed to have gotten the idea from a book. However, the founded the company alongside his wife, Bonnie Basset and friend Gerry Percy. They worked as a team so as to purchase a used hand juicer for 200$ and began producing fresh squeezed orange juice. This marked the beginning of Odwalla Company. In order to run an institution properly, it is vital to have clearly defined goals that will eventually serve the interests of the company. One of the driving concerns of Odwalla Company was to widen its clientele that eventually would serve to give it some market dominance. This was to be achieved be extending its market reach by expanding its own distribution and production capabilities and by acquiring other juice companies (p. 422).Another interest was to have a variety of products in its production line. The confirmation of this is when it added carrot juice in 1983 and apple juice in 1985 ,in its line. Odwalla also wanted to achieve rapid growth by use of bank loans and private stock earnings. Moreover, the company also wanted to be an industry producing natural fruit of high quality. Environmental conservation was also of primary concern by recycling of plastic bottles while inorganic products converted from landfills. E.Coli bacterium is spread to humans be fecal contamination when or secondary infection.It produces a potent toxin that attacks the lining of the gut. This poses a health risk to customers in the sense that in case the juices are pasteurized then the nutritional content is lost. The manner in which the case is handled is also a clear indication of how important the company values its customers.By taking responsibility of the customers health once the case is confirmed ,is a clear indication that Odwalla values its

Jose Rizal Essay Example for Free

Jose Rizal Essay As all Filipinos very well know Jose Rizal has written many books like Noli Me Tangere and El Filibusterismo to expose the hardship Filipinos are experiencing during the Spanish Time without fearing for what would happen to his life because of this. He was even exiled in Dapitan because of his writing and during this time he did not stop helping and even taught the villagers there the importance of education and as a doctor cured those who are sick. His intentions were clear, the willingness to help is always there. I think this is the first step in showing the Fiipinos his intention of helping our fellow Filipinos to build a nation. Our Forefathers became aware of the abuses being done in our country because of what Rizal had written therefore awakening the Filipinos knowledge to build a nation not under the influence of any Foreign People but a nation which should be protected and loved by its citizen. The intentions also of the Foreign Leadership that was happening in our country that time were revealed by his writing. Abuses of the soldiers, Friars and other Spanish leaders were exposed to the people and analysing such would be comparing the corruption happening even during those days. Corruption has been a root cause on why a nation suffers. Jose Rizal during his last days made thru to his intention of his love for the Nation so that it could be strong. Sacrificing his life for the Nation who during that time is so afraid and awakening the Katipunan to stand strong against Foreign Colonialism is surely an indication that this is the start of a strong Nation not afraid to face aggression and to love this country which should be governed by its people and showing his undying love by sacrificing himself just to spark its country man, therefore it is my opinion that Rizal is the spark to build a strong nation here in our Country.

The client server architecture

The client server architecture Abstract In this assignment we talk about the client server architecture and its model and about its advantage and compare them with each other. Also provide some solution and comments about Hures Company. Introduction:- We are now in modern age of technology. Like old time we do not need to do our daily things with pen and paper now. Modern technology gives us the power to saves the time and work become more easy without any hassle .Now multinational companies using computer for their all task. So its become more essential for everybody for their daily needs and work. Everybody now depending on computer so its really important to build up relation between computers to computers and then we also need a server means powerful computer with high requirement .Server serve Client means the user .If server cannot control the client request then its become more complicated for every single users for that regain system can be crash .and technology update time by time so the system needs to be updated. If any company crate a system that can serve 100 employee but they have like 300 employee its not possible to cover everyone needs also its become pain for everyone to work with that system. So we need better s ystem design means Better client server architecture. With the right level of attention to client/ server systems and application design. But poor design can ruin this utopian vision; making upgrades every bit as painful, time-consuming, and costly as installing a new mainframe. Colin White writes that the benefit of client/server computing is the availability of Hardware servers that scale from a small uni-processor machine to a massively parallel Machine containing hundreds, possibly thousands of processors. Corporations can now match the computing power of the server to the job at hand. If a server runs out of capacity, the old server can simply be replaced by a larger one. This change can be made without affecting existing client workstation users or the tools they employ. This provides not only scalability, but also flexibility in handling hardware growth as compared with central mainframes where an upgrade is a major undertaking that is both costly and time consuming. (Colin White, Supporting High-Performance DSS Applications, InfoDB 8(2) (1994), 27. ) Client-server architecture A web page (HTML page) that contains the same information for all users. Although it may be periodically updated from time to time, it does not change with each user retrieval. A program / script file executed on the web server in response to a user request. A CGI script is usually executed to process the data sent when a form filled in by a user is sent back to the web server. Server side scripting means that all of the code is executed on the server before the data is passed to the users browser. In the case of PHP this means that no PHP code ever reaches the user, it is instead executed and only the information it outputs is sent to the web browser PHP: Hypertext Preprocessor.PHP pages typically have .phtml,php or .php3 file name extensions. An open source technology. ASP: Active Server Pages .A Microsoft technology. Extension .asp. JSP: Java Server Pages .jsp pages contain Java code. SSI: Server Side Includes. Involves the embedding of small code snippets inside the HTML page. An SSI page typically has .shtml as its file extension. With this technology now its become really easy to create large website and maintain it easily. Introduction to 2-Tier Architecture Two-tier client/server architectures have 2 essential components A Client PC and A Database Server Tier Considerations: Client program accesses database directly. Requires to code change to port to a different database. Potential bottleneck for data requests .High volume of traffic due to data shipping. Client program executes application logic. Limited by processing capability of client workstation (memory, CPU) .Requires application code to be distributed to each client workstation. (Less than 50 users). Introduction to 3-Tier Architecture 3-Tier client-server architectures have 3 essential components: A Client PC An Application Server A Database Server 3-Tier Architecture Considerations: Client program contains presentation logic only Less resources needed for client workstation No client modification if database location changes Less code to distribute to client workstations One server handles many client requests More resources available for server program Reduces data traffic on the network Comparing both types of architecture Tier 2 architecture is therefore a client-server architecture where the server is versatile means it is capable of directly responding to all of the clients resource requests. In tier 3 architecture however, the server-level applications are remote from one another, i.e. each server is specialized with a certain task eg:- web server/database server. Tier 3 architecture provides: Flexibility. Increased security at each level. Increased performance. Benefits of the Client/Server Model Cost savings. Scalability. Manage workflow. Provide multi-tier service Instrumentality Disadvantages of the client/server model Client/Server architecture also has the following drawbacks: increased cost: due to the technical complexity of the server a weak link: the server is the only weak link in the client/server network, given that the entire network is built around it! Fortunately, the server is highly fault tolerant (primarily thanks to the RAID system) (http://en.kioskea.net/contents/cs/csintro.php3) Problem Faced by Hures Company and its solution:- According to the problems faced by Hures, its Primarily, its not that system they made for future use .it did not have that capability to the handle the future demands or needs of the company. the developer of the system did not focused on the future strength of the system or the adjustment of the system, different changes on both external and internal environment which change the over flow of information in the company. In order to come up with the current problem of Hures system, Client-Queue-Client can be applied as alternative architecture. This uses a passive queue which allows the client instances to communicate directly with each other, which will refine their request from the services. This is helpful for Hures because it can help to support and prevent any problems that are related with the server (Exforsys Inc n.d.).. Client queue is used in order to take track of the number of client connections. Therefore, the server can trace which resources the client has obtained, and the server can release the resources after the client connection breaks down (Chan Leong 2003). Intranet is a network that is built by using the same tools and protocols that are used by the global Internet but applied instead to the internal network of an organization. It can be describe like a closed-circuit television system, which can be viewed only by those people within the organization that owns the system (Lowe 2009). Intranet site is a web site that is viewable only to those within the network of an organization. Even though based on the same protocols as the World Wide Web, an intranet is protected from the outside world either by not being connected to the outside or through a series of hardware and software obstacles known as a firewalll (Matthews Matthews 2003, p. 64). The development of an intranet web site using secure log cons to access the information is not a new idea. Many corporate locations use a secure internal site for vital information to be used by employees of the corporation and management only. The design of such a site could be simple using HTML, Java and CSS and may provide a variety of links to various databases stored within the network server(s). Security features can be enhanced by requiring the changing of passwords on individual users every thirty (30) days. Obviously, one counter position of establishing an internal web site would be that of cost and implementation. Depending upon the OS of the server, it would be necessary to create the web site and establish users with passwords to access the site. This would take some time to develop and the amount of individuals accessing the site would have to be considered in the overall budget required for implementation. Threats to the security of any open network system will always exist. Proper network monitoring on a continuous level severely reduces the risk of infiltration from outside sources. Network security should be the most important aspect of any company/corporation within the network structure. Reducing allowable events such as user abilities to plug in devices to their individual workstations, remote monitoring using camera feeds in various places within the office. Again, the cost of this will be substantial however, to maintain the integrity of the network should be of the highest priority and can reduce the severity of lost revenue. Disadvantages in intranet that its really expensive to maintain and setup. Need high qualified people or team to maintain its resources. Peer-to-peer and client-server architecture have different advantages and pros. It enables to take advantage of the wireless and Internet technology, at the same time, take advantage of the privacy and security which can be offered by client/server system. Intranet and internet both are famous worldwide so i will develop daily basis and needs to upgrade time wise. References: Books:- Colin White, Supporting High-Performance DSS Applications, InfoDB 8(2) (1994), 27. Chan, A T S Leong, H V 2003, Cooperative Internet Computing, S:pringer. Lowe, D 2009, Networking for Dummies, For Dummies. Matthews, M, Matthews, C B Poulsen, E 2003, Microsoft Office FrontPage 2003: The Complete Reference, McGraw-Hill Professional. Website:- http://members.tripod.com/ChannuKambalyal/NTierArchitecture.pdf http://www.webdevelopersnotes.com/basics/client_server_architecture.php3 Exforsy:-Peer-to-Peer and Client-Queue-Client Architecture, http://www.exforsys.com/tutorials/client-server/peer-to-peer-and-client-queue-client-architecture.html [Accessed 17 February 2010]